numpy.cos works significantly longer on certain numbers

Question

TLDR:

numpy.cos() works 30% longer on a particular numbers (exactly 24000.0 for example). Adding a small delta (+0.01) causes numpy.cos() to work as usual.

I have no idea why.

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I stumbled across a strange problem during my work with numpy. I was checking cache work and accidentally made a wrong graph - how numpy.cos(X) time depends on X. Here is my modified code (copied from my Jupyter notebook):

import numpy as np import timeit st = 'import numpy as np' cmp = [] cmp_list = [] left = 0 right = 50000 step = 1000 # Loop for additional average smoothing for _ in range(10):     cmp_list = []     # Calculate np.cos depending on its argument     for i in range(left, right, step):         s=(timeit.timeit('np.cos({})'.format(i), number=15000, setup=st))         cmp_list.append(int(s*1000)/1000)     cmp.append(cmp_list)  # Calculate average times av=[np.average([cmp[i][j] for i in range(len(cmp))]) for j in range(len(cmp[0]))]  # Draw the graph import matplotlib.pyplot as plt fig = plt.figure() ax = fig.add_subplot(1, 1, 1) plt.plot(range(left, right, step), av, marker='.') plt.show()  

The graph looked like this:

Firstly I thought it was just a random glitch. I recalculated my cells but the result was nearly the same. So I started to play with step parameters, with number of calculations and averages list length. But everything had no effect to this number:

And even closer:

After it, range was useless (it can't steps with floats) so I calculated np.cos manually:

print(timeit.timeit('np.cos({})'.format(24000.01),number=5000000,setup=st)) print(timeit.timeit('np.cos({})'.format(24000.00),number=5000000,setup=st)) print(timeit.timeit('np.cos({})'.format(23999.99),number=5000000,setup=st)) 

And the result was:

3.4297256958670914 4.337243619374931 3.4064380447380245 

np.cos() calculates exactly 24000.00 on 30% longer, than 24000.01!

There were another strange numbers like it (somewhere around 500000, I don't remember exactly).

I looked through numpy documentation, through its source code, and it had nothing about this effect. I know that trigonometric functions use several algorithms depends on value size, precision etc, but it is confusing for me that exact numbers can be calculated way longer.

Why np.cos() has this strange effect? Is it some kind of processor side-effect (because numpy.cos uses C-functions that depends on processors)? I have Intel Core i5 and Ubuntu installed, if it will help for someone.

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Edit 1: I tried to reproduce it on another machine with AMD Ryzen 5. Results are just unstable. Here is graphs for three sequential runs of the same code:

import numpy as np import timeit  s = 'import numpy as np' times = [] x_ranges = np.arange(23999, 24001, 0.01) for x in x_ranges:     times.append(timeit.timeit('np.cos({})'.format(x), number=100000, setup=s))  # ---------------  import matplotlib.pyplot as plt  fig = plt.figure() ax = fig.add_subplot(111) plt.plot(x_ranges, times) plt.show() 

Well, there is some patterns (like mostly consistent left part and non-consistent right part), but it differs a lot from Intel processors runs. Looks like it is really just special aspects of processors, and AMD behaviour is much more predictable in its indeterminism :)

P.S. @WarrenWeckesser thanks for ``np.arange``` function. It is really useful, but it changes nothing in results, as expected.

Answer 1

The slowness in computing the result for those special numbers may be related to exact rounding and table maker's dilemma.

To illustrate, suppose you are making a table of the exponential function to 4 places. Then exp(1.626) = 5.0835. Should this be rounded to 5.083 or 5.084? If exp(1.626) is computed more carefully, it becomes 5.08350. And then 5.083500. And then 5.0835000. Since exp is transcendental, this could go on arbitrarily long before distinguishing whether exp(1.626) is 5.083500...0ddd or 5.0834999...9ddd.

Though, because of this reason the IEEE standard does NOT require transcendental functions to be exactly rounded, it is possible that the implementation of the math.cos function is hit by this problem while doing its best to compute the most accurate result and then figuring out that the effect is not worth the effort.

To demonstrate that this is the case for some number X one will have to compute the value of math.cos(X) with high precision and check its binary representation - the representable part of the mantissa must be followed by one of the following patterns:

• 1 and a long run of 0's
• 0 and a long run of 1's (when the value is computed with precision lower than required to accommodate all the 1's in the run, this case appears as the first one)

Therefore, the probability that a number will be a slow argument to a transcendental function is 1/2ⁿ where n is the maximal length of the above pattern seen by the algorithm after which it gives up trying to arrive at the exactly rounded result.

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Demonstration highlighting the representable part of the mantissa for the IEEE 754 double precision case (where mantissa has 53 bits):

In [1]: from mpmath import mp  In [2]: import math  In [3]: def show_mantissa_bits(x, n, k):    ...:     print(bin(int(mp.floor(abs(x) * 2**n)))[2:])    ...:     print('^'*k)    ...:       In [4]: mp.prec = 100  In [5]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(108), 64, 53) 110000000100001011001011010000110111110010100011000011000000000 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [6]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(108.01), 64, 53) 101110111000000110001101110001000010100111000010101100000100110 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [7]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(448), 64, 53) 101000101000100111000010111100001011111000001111110001000000000 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [8]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(448.01), 64, 53) 101001110110001010010100100000110001111100000001101110111010111 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [9]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(495), 64, 53) 11001010100101110110001100110101010011110010000000000011111111 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [10]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(495.01), 64, 53) 11010100100111100110000000011000110000001001101100010000001010 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [11]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(24000), 64, 53) 11001000100000001100110111011101001101101101000000110011111111 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  In [12]: show_mantissa_bits(mp.cos(24000.01), 64, 53) 10111110011100111001010101100101110001011010101011001010110011 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^